Study · Academic vocabularyModule 09
Science and Research
Level B1–B2
Learning goals
- This module develops vocabulary for describing scientific ideas, research processes, and the strength of evidence. You will practise recognising precise meanings and using common academic word forms and collocations.
Step 1 — Read and discover
Read the passage and notice how the bold words are used.
How do we know what is true?
Scientific knowledge develops through asking questions, collecting information, and testing explanations. Researchers often begin with a hypothesis: a possible explanation that can be examined through investigation. They may design an experiment or another study to see whether the evidence supports the idea.
A good study needs a clear procedure so other researchers can understand what was done and, where possible, repeat the work. Researchers identify the variables that could influence the results. If several factors change at once, it may be difficult to determine which one caused an observed effect.
An empirical study uses observations or measurements, while a theoretical account develops ideas to explain them. Researchers record each observation carefully. After collecting results, they look for a correlation between factors. However, correlation does not automatically prove that one factor causes another. Claims about a causal link need stronger evidence than a simple association.
A theory becomes more convincing when different studies produce consistent results and when the method is replicable. Researchers may infer a pattern from the evidence, but each inference must be justified. They also assess the validity of their measures and the reliability of their results. An unexpected anomaly may reveal a problem or point to a new question.
Scientific conclusions are not always final. New findings may challenge an accepted explanation, leading researchers to revise their ideas. A useful theory should make predictions that can be tested. If observations do not match those predictions, the theory may need to change. Researchers should describe the limitations of a study clearly rather than making claims that go beyond the evidence.
Check your understanding
1. What is a hypothesis?Try again
1. What is a hypothesis?
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2. Why should researchers identify variables?Try again
2. Why should researchers identify variables?
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3. What should researchers do when evidence does not support a theory?Try again
3. What should researchers do when evidence does not support a theory?
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Step 2 — Explore the vocabulary
Use the word cards to review each word's meaning, example, word family, and common collocations.
hypothesis
nounB1–B2A possible explanation for something that can be tested through research.
“The researchers tested the hypothesis that regular practice improves recall.”
- formulate a hypothesis
- test a hypothesis
- support a hypothesis
Word family: hypothesise, hypothetical
experiment
noun/verbB1–B2A scientific test designed to discover or demonstrate something.
“The experiment compared two different methods.”
- conduct an experiment
- controlled experiment
- experiment with a method
Word family: experimental, experimentally, experimenter
procedure
nounB1–B2A series of actions or steps followed in a particular order.
“The procedure was described so other teams could repeat the study.”
- standard procedure
- research procedure
- follow a procedure
Word family: procedural, procedurally
variable
noun/adjectiveB1–B2A factor that can change or be changed in a study.
“The researchers controlled one variable at a time.”
- independent variable
- dependent variable
- control a variable
Word family: variability, vary
correlation
nounB1–B2A relationship between two things that change or occur together.
“The study reported a correlation between sleep and concentration.”
- strong correlation
- correlation between
- positive correlation
Word family: correlate, correlated, correlational
consistent
adjectiveB1–B2Remaining similar or agreeing with other information or results.
“The second study produced consistent results.”
- consistent results
- broadly consistent
- consistent with evidence
Word family: consistency, consistently, inconsistent
challenge
verb/nounB1–B2To question whether an idea, claim, or explanation is correct.
“The findings challenge the traditional explanation.”
- challenge an assumption
- challenge a theory
- pose a challenge
Word family: challenging, challenged
prediction
nounB1–B2A statement about what is expected to happen in the future or under certain conditions.
“The model made a prediction that could be checked against later data.”
- make a prediction
- accurate prediction
- test a prediction
Word family: predict, predictable, predictably
limitation
nounB1–B2A weakness, restriction, or boundary that affects what can be concluded.
“The small sample was an important limitation of the study.”
- major limitation
- acknowledge a limitation
- study limitations
Word family: limit, limited, limiting
replicate
verbB1–B2To repeat a study or process to check whether similar results can be obtained.
“Another team tried to replicate the experiment.”
- replicate a study
- replicate results
- successfully replicate
Word family: replication, replicable, replicability
empirical
adjectiveB1–B2Based on observation or experience rather than theory alone.
“The claim needs empirical support from carefully collected observations.”
- empirical evidence
- empirical research
- empirical data
Word family: empirically, empiricism
theoretical
adjectiveB1–B2Related to ideas or principles that explain something, rather than practical application alone.
“The theoretical model offered a possible explanation for the pattern.”
- theoretical framework
- theoretical model
- theoretical approach
Word family: theory, theoretically, theorise
observation
nounB1–B2The act of watching something carefully or a fact noticed in this way.
“The observation was recorded before the experiment began.”
- direct observation
- make an observation
- observation period
Word family: observe, observer, observational
replicable
adjectiveB1–B2Able to be repeated with similar results under similar conditions.
“A replicable method allows other researchers to check the findings.”
- replicable results
- replicable method
- scientifically replicable
Word family: replicate, replication
causal
adjectiveB1–B2Relating to a cause or to the relationship between a cause and an effect.
“The researchers were careful not to make a causal claim from correlation alone.”
- causal relationship
- causal link
- causal effect
Word family: cause, causally, causation
infer
verbB1–B2To reach a conclusion from evidence and reasoning rather than direct statement.
“From the results, researchers may infer that the method deserves further study.”
- infer from evidence
- reasonably infer
- infer a conclusion
Word family: inference, inferential
inference
nounB1–B2A conclusion reached by reasoning from evidence or facts.
“The inference was plausible, but further testing was needed.”
- draw an inference
- reasonable inference
- inference from data
Word family: infer, inferential
validity
nounB1–B2The extent to which a method or conclusion measures or represents what it claims to.
“The team questioned the validity of the questionnaire.”
- question validity
- internal validity
- validity of a measure
Word family: valid, validate, validation
reliability
nounB1–B2The extent to which a method or measure gives dependable, repeatable results.
“The researchers checked the reliability of the measurement tool.”
- test reliability
- reliability of data
- high reliability
Word family: reliable, reliably, unreliable
anomaly
nounB1–B2Something that differs from what is usual or expected.
“The unusual result was treated as an anomaly and investigated further.”
- statistical anomaly
- explain an anomaly
- unexpected anomaly
Word family: anomalous, anomalously
Step 3 — Meaning in context
Choose the best answer, then check your choices.
1. The researchers developed a hypothesis before collecting data.Try again
1. The researchers developed a hypothesis before collecting data.
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2. The team followed the same procedure in each trial.Try again
2. The team followed the same procedure in each trial.
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3. The study found a correlation between sleep duration and concentration.Try again
3. The study found a correlation between sleep duration and concentration.
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4. The results were consistent across three separate studies.Try again
4. The results were consistent across three separate studies.
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5. The new evidence may challenge the earlier explanation.Try again
5. The new evidence may challenge the earlier explanation.
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Step 4 — Complete the sentences
Type the missing word or phrase. Legitimate spelling variants and harmless capitalisation differences are accepted.
1.The researchers proposed a that could be tested.Try again✓
2.The team designed an to compare two methods.Try again✓
3.A clear helps others understand how a study was carried out.Try again✓
4.Researchers should identify the that may affect the outcome.Try again✓
5.A between two factors does not prove that one causes the other.Try again✓
6.The findings were with results from earlier studies.Try again✓
7.The new observations may the accepted theory.Try again✓
8.Researchers should explain the of their study.Try again✓
Step 5 — Word families
Choose the correct form of the word in brackets.
1. The researchers made a careful __________ before collecting data. (PREDICT)Try again
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2. The team used a clearly defined __________ for each trial. (PROCEED)Try again
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3. The results were __________ across different groups. (CONSISTENCY)Try again
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4. The report describes the main __________ of the research design. (LIMIT)Try again
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5. The researcher tried to __________ the result using a second method. (REPLICATION)Try again
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Step 6 — Collocations
Match each beginning with the most natural ending.
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Step 7 — Quick review
Choose the best answer for each question.
1. Which term means a factor that can change in a study?Try again
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2. What does it mean to replicate a study?Try again
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3. Which word refers to a possible explanation that can be tested?Try again
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4. If findings are consistent, they are __________.Try again
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5. Which term describes a weakness or boundary of a study?Try again
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