Study · Academic grammarModule 14
Parallel Structures, Cohesion and Punctuation
Level B1–B2
Learning goals
- In this module, you will use parallel structures in lists and comparisons; connect ideas with clear reference words and linking expressions; punctuate common academic sentence patterns; and avoid comma splices and sentence fragments.
Step 1 — Read and discover
Read the passage. Notice bold lists, reference words, and punctuation choices.
Making Research Easier to Follow
A strong academic paragraph does more than present information. It helps readers see how ideas fit together. Writers can improve clarity by organising information logically, using consistent grammatical patterns, and choosing punctuation carefully.
A report may explain that a new transport policy aims to reduce traffic, improve air quality, and make streets safer. This list is easy to follow because each item uses the same grammatical form. A less balanced version—reducing traffic, better air quality, and streets should be safer—sounds uneven.
Cohesion is also important. Writers use words such as this, these, such, and they to refer to information already mentioned. However, a reference should be clear. If a paragraph discusses a policy, a survey, and a group of residents, the sentence This was successful may leave readers unsure what this means. A more precise sentence is: The survey was successful because it reached residents from several neighbourhoods.
Punctuation helps readers understand sentence structure. A comma can separate items in a list or introduce a clause after an opening phrase. It cannot, however, join two complete sentences by itself. The sample was small, the findings were useful is a comma splice. It can be corrected with a full stop, a semicolon, or a suitable conjunction.
Clear academic writing does not require complicated sentences. It requires sentences in which grammar, links, and punctuation make the meaning easy to understand.
Check your understanding
1. Why is the transport policy list easy to follow?Try again
1. Why is the transport policy list easy to follow?
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2. What problem can vague reference words cause?Try again
2. What problem can vague reference words cause?
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3. What is a comma splice?Try again
3. What is a comma splice?
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Step 2 — Understand the grammar
Study the grammar cards for parallel lists, paired expressions, cohesion, linking words, and punctuation. Notice when commas, semicolons, and colons are appropriate.
Grammar cards
Parallel lists
Use matching grammatical forms in a listB1-B2Parallel forms make lists easier to read.
“The programme aims to reduce costs, improve access, and increase participation.”
The programme aims to reduce costs, improving access, and participation.
Parallel after and/or
Coordinate elements with similar grammatical rolesB1-B2Keep connected elements grammatically balanced.
“The study measured cost and compared quality.”
The study measured cost and comparing quality.
Both…and
both + element + and + matching elementB1-B2Connect two balanced elements.
“The course develops both writing skills and speaking skills.”
The course develops both writing skills and to speak confidently.
Either…or
either + element + or + matching elementB1-B2Present two alternatives.
“The plan will either reduce costs or improve services.”
The plan will either reduce costs or improving services.
Not only…but also
not only + element + but also + matching elementB1-B2Add emphasis to balanced points.
“The policy is not only affordable but also practical.”
The policy is not only affordable but also it works practically.
Clear reference with this
this + specific summary nounB1-B2Use a noun after this when the reference may be unclear.
“This decision affected local businesses.”
The council changed the timetable and surveyed residents. This was important.
Clear reference with these
these + plural summary nounB1-B2Refer clearly to a group of results or points.
“These findings suggest further research is needed.”
These suggests further research.
However between sentences
Sentence. However, sentence.B1-B2Signal contrast between statements.
“The sample was small. However, the findings were useful.”
The sample was small, however the findings were useful.
However after semicolon
Clause; however, clause.B1-B2Join independent clauses with a semicolon and however.
“The sample was small; however, the findings were useful.”
The sample was small, however; the findings were useful.
Therefore
Sentence. Therefore, sentence.B1-B2Show a result or conclusion.
“The roads were unsafe. Therefore, the council changed the design.”
The roads were unsafe, therefore the council changed the design.
Although at sentence start
Although + clause, main clauseB1-B2Introduce a contrast with a dependent clause.
“Although the sample was small, the findings were useful.”
Although, the sample was small, the findings were useful.
Comma in a list
Separate items in a series with commasB1-B2Make items easy to distinguish.
“The priorities were access, safety, and cost.”
The priorities were access safety and cost.
Comma before coordinating conjunction
Independent clause, and/but/so + independent clauseB1-B2Use a comma when a conjunction joins independent clauses.
“The survey was short, so many people completed it.”
The survey was short, many people completed it.
Semicolon
Independent clause; independent clause.B1-B2Join closely related independent clauses.
“The sample was small; the results were useful.”
The sample was small; because the results were useful.
Colon to introduce a list
Complete clause: list or explanationB1-B2Introduce details after a complete clause.
“The report identified three priorities: access, safety, and cost.”
The report identified: three priorities.
Avoid colon between verb and object
Verb + object; use colon after a complete lead-inB1-B2Do not split a verb from its object with a colon.
“The study measured three factors: cost, quality, and speed.”
The study measured: cost, quality, and speed.
Comma splice
Use full stop, semicolon, or conjunctionB1-B2A comma alone cannot join independent clauses.
“The survey was brief; many people completed it.”
The survey was brief, many people completed it.
Sentence fragment
Include a main clauseB1-B2A dependent clause alone is not usually a complete sentence.
“The team repeated the study because the results were inconsistent.”
Because the results were inconsistent.
Parallel adjectives
Use the same form in an adjective listB1-B2Balanced adjectives create a clear description.
“The policy is affordable, practical, and effective.”
The policy is affordable, practical, and it works well.
Punctuation reflects structure
Choose punctuation based on clause relationshipsB1-B2Punctuation should show grammatical relationships, not only pauses.
“Although the sample was small, the findings were useful.”
Adding commas wherever a speaker pauses.
Step 3 — Choose the best answer
Choose the best answer, then check your choices.
1. The project aims to ___ costs, ___ access, and ___ participation.Try again
1. The project aims to ___ costs, ___ access, and ___ participation.
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2. The sample was small. ___, the findings were useful.Try again
2. The sample was small. ___, the findings were useful.
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3. Which sentence is correct?Try again
3. Which sentence is correct?
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4. Choose the correct sentence.Try again
4. Choose the correct sentence.
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5. Which avoids a comma splice?Try again
5. Which avoids a comma splice?
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Step 4 — Complete the sentences
Type the missing word or phrase. More than one answer may be accepted when it fits the sentence.
1.The scheme aims to (reduce) traffic, improve safety, and provide cleaner air.Try again✓
2.The survey was short, so many residents (complete) it.Try again✓
3. (Although) the results were unexpected, the team accepted them.Try again✓
4.The university wants to improve facilities, (lower) costs, and increase access.Try again✓
5.The policy aims to reduce waste, (save) money, and improve efficiency.Try again✓
6.The roads were unsafe; (therefore), the council changed the design.Try again✓
7.The course develops both writing skills (and) speaking skills.Try again✓
8.The timetable (change) caused confusion among residents.Try again✓
Step 5 — Choose the best answer
Choose the best correction or answer.
1. The course develops both ___.Try again
1. The course develops both ___.
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2. The council changed the timetable after the survey. ___ caused confusion.Try again
2. The council changed the timetable after the survey. ___ caused confusion.
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3. Which uses parallel structure?Try again
3. Which uses parallel structure?
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4. Which sentence is correct?Try again
4. Which sentence is correct?
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5. Which sentence is correct?Try again
5. Which sentence is correct?
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Step 6 — Match the sentence beginnings and endings
Match each beginning with the best ending.
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Step 7 — Quick review
Choose the best answer for each question.
1. Which list is parallel?Try again
1. Which list is parallel?
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2. Which reference is clearest?Try again
2. Which reference is clearest?
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3. Which punctuation joins two related independent clauses correctly?Try again
3. Which punctuation joins two related independent clauses correctly?
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4. Which sentence avoids a comma after although at the start?Try again
4. Which sentence avoids a comma after although at the start?
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5. Which use of a colon is correct?Try again
5. Which use of a colon is correct?
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