Reading Passage 1
AFor much of the twentieth century, many household goods were designed around the expectation that they would be replaced when they stopped working. In recent years, repair has attracted renewed attention because of concerns about waste, resource use and the cost of replacing products. Repair can extend the useful life of an object, but whether it is practical depends on its design, the availability of parts, the price of labour and the skills required. A broken product is not always worth repairing, yet replacement is not automatically the most economical or sustainable choice.
BManufacturers influence repairability through decisions made at the design stage. Products assembled with standard screws and replaceable components are generally easier to open than those sealed with adhesives or specialised fasteners. Modular design can allow one faulty part to be changed without discarding the rest of the device. However, modularity can add weight, complexity or manufacturing cost, and not every component can be separated without affecting performance. Design therefore involves trade-offs rather than a single ideal solution.
CThe economics of repair also depend on information. Independent repairers need access to manuals, diagnostic tools and replacement parts. If these are restricted, a repair that is technically straightforward may become expensive or impossible outside an authorised network. Manufacturers may argue that restrictions protect safety, intellectual property or product reliability. Critics respond that broad restrictions can limit competition and shorten product life. The effects vary by product, so policy debates often focus on which information and parts should be made available, and under what conditions.
DConsumers do not always choose the option with the lowest long-term cost. A replacement may be more convenient, come with a warranty or offer features that the old product lacks. Repair costs can also be uncertain until a technician examines the fault. People may therefore compare the immediate price and effort of repair with the certainty of buying something new. This helps explain why an environmentally preferable option does not necessarily become the most popular one.
ERepair skills are unevenly distributed. Some people can mend clothing, maintain bicycles or replace simple components, while others lack the tools, confidence or space to attempt such work. Community repair events and practical workshops can reduce these barriers, but they cannot make every repair safe for an inexperienced person. Electrical equipment, batteries and pressurised components may require specialist knowledge. Encouraging repair should therefore include guidance about when professional help is necessary.
FGovernments have tried several ways to make repair more attractive. Some rules require manufacturers to provide spare parts for a specified period; others introduce repairability labels or support access to technical information. Such measures may help consumers compare products, but a single score can conceal important differences. A device might be easy to open yet lack affordable parts, or have widely available components but require specialised tools. Useful information needs to reflect the barriers people actually face.
GRepair also has limits as an environmental strategy. An old appliance may use much more electricity than a modern efficient model, so keeping it in service for longer could increase energy consumption. The result depends on how much energy is saved by replacing it, how much material is needed to manufacture the new product and how long the replacement is used. Similar calculations apply to vehicles and industrial equipment. Repair is most beneficial when decisions consider the full life cycle rather than assuming that either repair or replacement is always superior.
HA stronger repair culture requires more than asking consumers to be careful. Products need to be designed with maintenance in mind, parts and information must be accessible, and repair services need to be affordable and trustworthy. Consumers also need clear advice about safety and the likely benefits of extending a product's life. Repair will not be the right answer in every case, but making it a realistic option can reduce waste, preserve useful materials and give people greater control over the goods they own.
Reading Passage 2
AMany animals travel across large distances to find food, reproduce or reach suitable seasonal habitats. Some journeys are regular and follow familiar routes, while others involve young animals making a first migration without an experienced guide. Navigation is not a single ability. Animals may use several sources of information, including landmarks, the position of the sun, stars, smells, ocean currents and the Earth's magnetic field. The relative importance of each cue depends on the species and the conditions in which it travels.
BLandmarks can provide reliable guidance when they are visible and familiar. Birds flying over a landscape may use coastlines or mountain ranges, while mammals can follow routes shaped by valleys and water sources. However, landmarks are less useful over open oceans or when fog and darkness obscure the landscape. Animals that travel through changing environments need ways to maintain direction when familiar visual information is unavailable.
CThe sun and stars offer directional information, but using them accurately can require an internal sense of time. The sun appears to move across the sky, so an animal that relies on its position must account for the time of day. Experiments with some birds suggest that they can combine celestial cues with an internal clock. Cloud cover can remove these cues temporarily, which may explain why animals often use more than one method rather than depending on a single source.
DSmell is particularly important for some fish and other animals that return to specific breeding locations. Chemical signals in water can provide information about a familiar river or coastal area. Yet smell alone may not explain how an animal travels through unfamiliar regions over long distances. Researchers therefore investigate how chemical information interacts with currents, memory and other sensory cues, rather than assuming that one mechanism accounts for the entire journey.
EEvidence suggests that many species can detect aspects of the Earth's magnetic field. This may provide a compass-like sense of direction, and in some cases may also help animals estimate their position. The underlying biological mechanisms are still being investigated, and results from laboratory experiments do not always translate easily to natural conditions. Magnetic cues may be disrupted by local anomalies or human-made electromagnetic signals, although the practical effects differ between species and environments.
FMigration routes can change as landscapes and climates change. Roads, artificial lighting, dams and habitat loss may obstruct movement or alter the cues animals use. Rising temperatures can also shift the timing of food availability, creating a mismatch between arrival and the resources needed for survival. Some species adjust their routes or schedules, but others may be unable to adapt quickly enough. Protecting migration therefore requires attention to connected habitats rather than isolated protected areas alone.
GScientists study navigation through field tracking, experiments and computer models. Satellite tags can reveal broad movements, while smaller devices may record detailed paths but are limited by battery life and weight. Researchers can test how animals respond to altered cues, although experiments must avoid causing unnecessary harm. No single method provides a complete picture: a recorded route shows where an animal went, but not necessarily which information it used to decide where to go.
HAnimal navigation is best understood as a flexible system that combines sensory information, experience and environmental conditions. A cue that is useful in one setting may be unavailable or misleading in another, so using several methods can improve resilience. As human activity changes landscapes and the atmosphere, preserving routes and reducing barriers become increasingly important. Understanding how animals navigate is therefore not only a scientific question; it can also guide conservation planning.
Reading Passage 3
APublic libraries were once commonly associated with shelves of printed books and quiet reading rooms. Books remain central to many services, but libraries increasingly provide internet access, digital collections, study spaces, workshops and assistance with everyday information needs. These changes reflect shifts in how people find information and use public spaces. They also raise questions about the library's core purpose: whether it is primarily a place to borrow materials or a wider institution that supports learning, participation and access to knowledge.
BDigital collections allow libraries to offer materials that would be difficult to store physically, and users may be able to access them from home. However, digital access is shaped by licensing agreements, subscription costs and the devices people own. A library may pay for access to an electronic book without gaining the same ownership rights it would have for a printed copy. Digital services can expand access, but they do not automatically remove financial or technological barriers.
CLibraries can play an important role in reducing digital exclusion. People may need help applying for jobs, completing official forms, using online public services or evaluating information they encounter on social media. Staff support can be especially valuable for people who have limited internet access or confidence with technology. Yet this work requires training and time, and it can place new demands on staff whose traditional responsibilities already include managing collections and helping readers.
DThe library as a shared public space has also become more significant. Students may use it because their homes are crowded or unsuitable for study, while older residents may value a place where they can spend time without being expected to buy anything. Workshops and community events can connect people who might otherwise have few opportunities to meet. These benefits are difficult to measure using borrowing statistics alone, which can make them less visible in funding decisions.
EChanging library services can create disagreement. Some users worry that noisy events or collaborative work areas will undermine quiet reading, while others argue that a library should respond to a broader range of needs. Building design can help by creating separate zones, but older buildings may be difficult to adapt and budgets are limited. Decisions about space therefore require a clear understanding of local demand rather than assuming that one model will suit every community.
FLibraries also face questions about neutrality and trust. Staff may help users locate information on controversial subjects without endorsing every source they provide. This requires professional judgement, transparent collection policies and a commitment to making a range of credible viewpoints available. At the same time, neutrality does not mean treating fabricated claims as equally reliable as well-supported evidence. Information literacy programmes can help users assess sources and recognise the difference between disagreement and deliberate misinformation.
GAssessing a library's value is challenging because its effects may emerge over time. A digital-skills workshop may help someone find employment months later, while access to a quiet study space may contribute to educational progress that cannot be attributed to one visit. Libraries can collect attendance data and user feedback, but numbers alone do not capture every benefit. Evaluation is strongest when quantitative measures are combined with evidence about how services affect people's opportunities and experiences.
HThe future of public libraries is unlikely to involve a simple choice between books and digital services. Their distinctive contribution may be the combination of trusted resources, skilled assistance and a shared space available to people regardless of their ability to pay. Services will need to vary with local circumstances, and traditional reading will remain important. The challenge is to adapt without losing the principles of public access, intellectual freedom and support for lifelong learning.
Questions 1–13
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
1Which factor influences whether a product can be repaired economically?
2Modular design is always cheaper and more effective than other designs.
3Why may a repair be impossible outside an authorised network?
4The passage suggests that consumers may choose replacement because it
5The author recommends that everyone attempt to repair electrical equipment themselves.
6Why might a single repairability score be insufficient?
7Repairing an old appliance is always better for the environment than replacing it.
8Choose the best heading for Paragraph G.
9What does the writer suggest is needed for a stronger repair culture?
10The word “modular” in Paragraph B most nearly means
11What is the main purpose of Passage 1?
12Which statement is consistent with the passage?
13Which measure can make repair more practical?
Questions 14–26
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
14Animals use only one navigation cue during long-distance migration.
15Why are landmarks less useful over open oceans?
16Some birds may combine celestial cues with an internal clock.
17Why might researchers avoid explaining a long journey through smell alone?
18Choose the best heading for Paragraph E.
19Magnetic cues are affected in exactly the same way in every species and environment.
20How can climate change disrupt migration?
21Why can a tracking device's recorded route be insufficient to explain navigation?
22The word “resilience” in Paragraph H most nearly means
23What is the main purpose of Passage 2?
24Which human-made change may obstruct migration?
25Public libraries now provide services beyond lending printed books.
26Why may digital collections not fully remove access barriers?
Questions 27–40
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
27Which kind of support is mentioned as helping reduce digital exclusion?
28Borrowing statistics fully capture the value of a library as a shared public space.
29Choose the best heading for Paragraph E.
30According to the passage, neutrality means treating fabricated claims as equally reliable as strong evidence.
31Why can assessing a library's value be difficult?
32The word “credible” in Paragraph F most nearly means
33What does the author identify as a distinctive contribution of public libraries?
34Which principle does the writer say libraries should preserve?
35Why might a library need separate zones for different activities?
36The passage suggests that local circumstances should influence library services.
37Which statement best summarises Passage 3?
38Why does the author discuss information literacy programmes?
39Which conclusion follows from the passage about library evaluation?
40Which conclusion follows from Passage 1 about repair policies?